Read the passage and answer the following questions.
The tumultuous saga of modern Indian history is punctuated by the recurrent tragedies of famines and epidemics, which have played a significant role in shaping the socio-economic and political landscape of the country. The era, starting from the late 18th century and extending well into the 20th century, witnessed an unsettling frequency of these calamities, each leaving an indelible imprint on the collective memory of the nation.
Arguably, the colonial policies of the British Empire contributed significantly to the severity of famines in India. The introduction of cash crops, at the expense of subsistence crops, compounded with the heavy taxation and land revenue systems, left the agrarian society vulnerable to the smallest of environmental fluctuations. The most infamous of these famines was the Great Bengal Famine of 1943, which claimed millions of lives. The colonial administration's response, or rather lack thereof, has been a subject of scathing criticism by historians.
Parallelly, India grappled with devastating epidemics such as the Spanish Flu in 1918, and bouts of cholera, plague, and malaria at various points in time. The colonial government's public health policies, or the absence of effective ones, exacerbated the impact of these epidemics. The sluggish and often indifferent response from the British officials highlighted the systemic neglect and underinvestment in public health infrastructure.
It wasn't until the dawn of independence that India began to witness a paradigm shift in addressing the dual challenges of famines and epidemics. The newly sovereign nation embarked on ambitious programs aimed at ensuring food security, improving healthcare, and laying down the groundwork for policies that were more sensitive to the well-being of its citizens. The establishment of the Planning Commission in 1950 and the adoption of the Green Revolution in the 1960s were pivotal in mitigating the risk of famines, reflecting a significant departure from previous government policies. Similarly, the eradication of smallpox in 1977 and the launch of the Universal Immunization Program in 1985 marked critical milestones in the battle against epidemics.
In retrospect, the trajectory of modern Indian history underscores the profound impact of government policies on mitigating the adverse effects of famines and epidemics. The transformation from colonial neglect to proactive governance encapsulates a critical chapter in the nation's journey towards resilience and self-sufficiency.