In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, taking charge at a time when the nation faced mounting technological, economic, and political challenges. Acknowledging these issues and the rapid progress in the West, he introduced reforms known as perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (political openness) to reinvigorate the stale Soviet system. These initiatives were meant to counter economic stagnation and to modernize the centralized and autocratic political structure.

Gorbachev’s reforms, however, produced unforeseen effects. In Eastern Europe, countries long subjected to Soviet control saw citizens rise up and protest against their rigid governments. Gorbachev’s deliberate decision not to use military intervention allowed these long-established communist regimes to collapse one after another. Concurrently, internal problems—widespread corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and centralized power—fueled discontent among Soviet citizens.

Furthermore, nationalist sentiments began to surge in several republics. Regions such as the more Europeanized western parts of Russia, along with the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Georgia, increasingly demanded sovereignty and self-determination. Although several Central Asian republics preferred to remain with the Soviet Federation, the momentum of reform and protest, combined with a failed 1991 coup by hardliners opposed to change, marked a decisive turning point. By December 1991, crucial republics including Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This historic act led to the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and marked a significant shift toward democratization and capitalism.