Germanium (Ge) is more similar to carbon (C) than to its nearest neighbors tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Which of the following best explains this observation?
1
The atomic radii of Ge and C are much closer than those of Sn and Pb, which leads to a more pronounced overlap of orbitals in Ge and C compounds, favoring similar bonding and chemical properties.
2
Both Ge and C have a higher tendency to form tetrahedral covalent compounds due to their ability to hybridize sp3, whereas Sn and Pb primarily exhibit metallic bonding in their elemental forms.
3
Ge and C both exist in multiple oxidation states, but predominantly form stable compounds in the +4 oxidation state, while Sn and Pb tend to form more stable +2 oxidation state compounds.
4
Ge and C share a similar electron affinity and ionization energy, leading to analogous reactivity patterns, while Sn and Pb exhibit greater metallic character and a tendency to lose electrons more readily.